– Thomas E. Donaldson
If, as noted by DC Bhattacharya, Vaiṣṇavism was predominant throughout India and particularly engaged with Buddhism in a struggle for religious supremacy, one would think that Viṣṇu especially would be depicted in Buddhist art as an object of humiliation. There are only a few examples, however, where he is so depicted, as with Harihariharivāhana where he along with Garuḍa and a lion serve as vāhanas or with Vajrajvālānalārka where he and his wife are being trampled. He is also included as one of the four Māras under the feet of Daśabhujasita Mārīcī, 12-armed Ubhayavarāhānana, 16-armed Hēvajra, 16-armed Prasannatārā, and 24-armed Vidyujjvālākarālī. He is also one of six Hindu deities serving as seats for the six Chakravarti Dākas in the ṣaṭcakravarti maṇḍala of the Niṣpannayōgāvalī and as one of the eight deities serving as seats under directional goddesses surrounding the Pancha ḍākas of the Pancha ḍāka maṇḍala of the same text or under goddesses surrounding Hēvajra in the Hēvajra Tantra, the other seven Hindu gods in these last two maṇḍalas being Brahmā, Indra, Shiva, Yama, Kubēra, Nairr̥ti, and Vēmacitrin.
Brahmā likewise serves as a seat in the ṣatcakravarti maṇḍala in the Pañca ḍāka maṇḍala and in the Hēvajra Tantra while as one of four Māras he is similarly trampled by Daśabhujasita Mārīcī and Ubhayavarāhānana-Mārīcī, 16-armed Hēvajra, 16-armed Prasannatārā and 24-armed Vidyujjihvākarālī. Both he and Shiva are trampled by Mahācakra Vajrapāṇi. Indra, in addition to serving as one of the four Māras and one of eight gods in the above-mentioned maṇḍalas, is one of the six Hindu gods serving as seats in the ṣaṭcakravarti maṇḍala and as one of eight beneath the feet of Paramāśva (Hayagrīva), the others being śrī, Indrāṇī, Rati, Prīti, Madhukara (Kāma), Jayakara and Vasanta. Other Hindu deities being trampled upon include Aparājitā beneath Bhūtaḍāmara; Aditya under Ratnaḍāka in the ṣaṭcakravarti maṇḍala; Kāma with Rudra under the feet of Kālacakra, and with his consort beneath Tārōdbhavā-Kurukullā; and Gaṇēśa who is trampled on by Aparājitā or whose presence is implied (as an obstacle or vighna) under the feet of Parṇaśāvarī and Vighnāntaka. In the case of Gaṇēśa, it is more likely afflictions that must be overcome before enlightenment can be obtained that are being symbolized by his image rather than merely an attack on his person. As noted by J Leoshko, “from the Buddhist point the view, Hindu religious practices could be viewed as part of Māra’s bag of deluding tricks that keep one from enlightenment”.
The deity most often singled out for humiliation or desecration is Shiva, either singly or accompanied by his consort or by one or more other Hindu gods. In the ṣaṭcakravarti maṇḍala of the Niṣpannayōgāvalī, in fact, he is represented twice as a seat for Buddhist divinities – as Mahēśvara he is placed beneath Padmaḍāka while as Bhairava accompanied by Gaurī he placed under Vajrasattva or Jnānaḍāka. As Vhairava, he is placed under the feet of Vajrahūṅkāra while as Bhairava accompanied by his consort, usually named Kālarātrī, he is trampled by two-armed Sambara, 12-armed Sambara, 12-armed Chakrasambara, 6-armed Saptākṣara, 12-armed Hēruka, 6-armed Trailōkyavijaya, and two armed Vajravārāhī. As Mahēśvara accompanied by his consort Umā, he is trampled by 8-armed Trailōkyavijaya. As Hara accompanied by ShivA, he is trampled by Chakrasamvara. As Shiva accompanied by Brahmā, he is trampled by 6-armed Mahācakra Vajrapāṇi while as Rudra accompanied by Anaṅga (Kāma), he is crushed by 24-armed Kālacakra. As one of the four Māras he is under the feet of 16-armed Hēvajra, 16-armed Prasannatārā, 12-armed Ubhayavarāhānana Mārīcī, Daśabhujasita Mārīcī and 24-armed Vidyujjvālākarālī. He also appears as one of the eight Hindu deities placed under eight directional goddesses in the Pancha ḍāka maṇḍāla of the Niṣpannayōgāvalī and in the Hēvajra Tantra.
For the most part, then, Bhairava or Shiva is being trampled by Buddhist deities that are strongly influenced by him in respect to their iconography. This antagonism between Shaivism and Buddhism, as noted by G Tucci, has left traces in Tantric literature and iconography:
The god that rules and guides the world of demons and opposes the law and its progress is Mahēśvara, the lord of gods. In the fight between Vajrapāṇi or Yamāntaka on one side, and Mahēśvara on the other is shadowed the rivalry between Buddhism and Hinduism. Buddhism wants to affirm its superiority in the fight by imagining Mahēśvara along with his consort Umā put under the feet of the defenders of the faith.
The aetiological myth he discusses, obviously created to explain the iconographic features of the deity, is the battle between Mahādēva and the 34-armed Vajrabhairava. The tradition, summed up by Bharo the Nepalese, is as follows:
Once upon a time, there was a fight between Skanda Kumāra, the son of Mahādēva and Umā, and the asura Rudra. And this he lost. Then Mahādēva, the lord of the sphere of concupiscence (kāmalōka), assembled the thirty-three species of armies, the army of eight species of sickness, and of the eight species of calamities and won over Rudra. He requested Mañjuśrī for help. In order to face the thirty-six armies, he emanated from his body thirty-four arms. Against the crowd of horsemen of the subterranean asuras he emanated the head of a buffalo, against the eight species of sickness and the eight species of calamities staying on earth, he emanated sixteen feet and against Mahādēva he erected the member and revealed the tantra of Vajrabhairava in ten thousand verses.
Iconographically, this form of Vajrabhairava (Yamāntaka) is dark blue in color, has nine faces with the central one being that of a buffalo, has thirty-four arms, sixteen feet, is ūrdhvaliṅga and naked, has a pot-belly, wears a garland of fifteen heads freshly cut, has a crown of five terrific skulls and stands in pratyālīḍha above the figure of Shiva. Conversely, the figure of eight-headed, sixteen-armed, and four-legged Mahākāla embracing his Prajñā in the Sādhanamālā is said to trample upon Vajrabhairava in the form of a corpse.
In most instances Bhairava or Shiva when being trampled upon by a Buddhist deity is accompanied by his consort, an aspect never represented in Hindu art, and their pose implies that humiliation was intended. Except for the rare example in the ṣaṭcakravarti maṇḍala where the six cakravartī are seated in Vajraparyaṅka on the chest of six Hindu deities, the triumphant Buddhist gods are posed either standing or dancing. Invariably one foot is placed on the head of Bhairava while the other is placed on the breast of his consort, as in the case of Trailōkyavijaya, who stands in the pratyālīḍha attitude, tramples upon the head of Mahēśvara with his left leg, while the right presses upon the bosom of Gaurī. In the Trailōkyavijaya maṇḍala of the Sarvatathāgata Tattvasamgraha sūtra, as indicated, Shiva is considered to be dead but is eventually given new life by Vajrapāṇi, his body being consecrated as fully alive. In the description of the 12-armed Samvara, in contrast, it is stated:
With his right leg set forward, he presses down the head of Kālabhairava, who has four arms; two of them are in the act of adoration; in the second of the right he holds the magic drum, and in the second of the left he holds the sword. His left leg is bent and presses the breast of Kālī – red and also with four arms, two of which are joined in adoration, and of the other two the one on the right holds a kapāla and the left holds the khaṭvāṅga.
The placement of Shiva and Gaurī is not only reversed but each has one set of hands clasped in anjalī, paying homage to the triumphant Buddhist deity, to suggest that their life has been “restored”. In the three surviving images from Orissa, two stone images of Samvara and a bronze image of Vajrahūṅkāra, Shiva is placed under the left foot of the Buddhist deity while Gaurī is under the right foot. In the two images of Samvara, the two armed Kālarātrī is emaciated, suggesting she represents Chāmuṇḍā and holds a kartrī and a kapāla. The pot-bellied Bhairava holds a rosary, damarū, and a trident in three hands while the fourth possibly displays varada. In the image of Vajrahūṅkāra from Acutrajpur, in contrast, Kālarātrī is not emaciated and has four arms. Two of her hands are in anjalī, clasping the foot of the triumphant Buddhist deity, while her four scattered Ayudhas are a sword, hatchet, trident, and shield. The ten-armed Bhairava wears a garland of skulls and likewise has a set of hands in anjalī which touch the left leg of Vajrahūṅkāra.
For the most part then, at least with male deities, the Buddhist divinity triumphs over the Hindu deity most closely like himself, as in the case of Yamāntaka putting an end to Yama or Ucchuṣma Jambhala pressing down the head of Kubēra to make him vomit jewels, to suggest that humiliation is the primary emphasis rather than actual death.